Structured population data were available for 3 of 3 supporting studies. 3 studies described participants with type 2 diabetes. 2 studies described adult participants.

1 relevant study has unresolved authoritative design evidence and does not contribute to design-specific or RoB-specific claims.

Evidence uses heterogeneous comparison contexts: baseline_within_group, usual_care.

1 supporting study has high, serious, critical, unclear, or unavailable risk-of-bias information.

2 of 3 studies with duration data have follow-up of 12 weeks or less.

1 study contains conflicting p-value and significance fields; those significance claims are suppressed.

Control Group (CG)

Core clinician-reference fields are available or not applicable.

Participants underwent a supervised aerobic cycling programme for 12 weeks.

Exercise Group (EG)

The EG underwent a supervised aerobic cycling programme for 12 weeks (4 sessions/week, 50 min/session).

Participants continued their usual care without any additional intervention.

Authoritative quality diagnostic: invalid or missing unit.

Aerobic cycling improves metabolic health in middle-aged men with diabetes

Not extracted from the authoritative source.

Source evidence could not be resolved sufficiently for this field.

Clinician-reference record is usable with limitations in: design, comparator, risk_of_bias.

Participants with low insulin resistance completing a 4-week exercise program.

Low-IR Group

Fifty-five T2DM patients stratified by fasting C-peptide tertiles into low- (Group 1), moderate- (Group 2), and high-IR groups (Group 3) completed a 4-week moderate-intensity combined aerobic-resistance exercise program.

Participants with moderate insulin resistance completing a 4-week exercise program.

Moderate-IR Group

Participants with high insulin resistance completing a 4-week exercise program.

High-IR Group

Authoritative quality diagnostic: p value significance conflict.

Authoritative quality diagnostic: sample size arm total mismatch.

Authoritative quality diagnostic: source evidence unresolved.

Exercise improves metabolic parameters in type 2 diabetes with low insulin resistance

Clinician-reference record is usable with limitations in: comparator.

Participants received regular diabetes treatment, including diet amendments and medication.

Regular diabetes treatment

The control group received regular diabetes treatment, including diet amendments, regular and balanced exercise, and abstinence from smoking and alcohol.

Participants performed Tai Chi as part of their exercise regimen.

Aerobic Exercise Group (AEX)

The aerobic exercise group performs Tai Chi.

Participants performed elastic band exercises.

Resistance Exercise Group (REX)

The resistance group performs elastic band exercises.

Participants performed both Tai Chi and resistance exercises.

Combined Exercise Group (COMB)

The COMB group performs both Tai Chi and resistance exercise.

Aerobic exercise × BMI

Available supporting studies

Aerobic cycling improves metabolic health in middle-aged men with diabetes

Exercise improves metabolic parameters in type 2 diabetes with low insulin resistance

Exercise Improves Sleep Quality in Type 2 Diabetes