Structured population data were available for 4 of 4 supporting studies. Diabetes type was heterogeneous: 1 studies with type 1 diabetes, 1 studies with type 2 diabetes. Age groups were heterogeneous: 1 studies with adult participants, 1 studies with youth participants.

2 relevant studies have unresolved authoritative design evidence and do not contribute to design-specific or RoB-specific claims.

2 supporting studies do not have a displayable topic-matched quantitative effect.

2 supporting studies have high, serious, critical, unclear, or unavailable risk-of-bias information.

2 of 4 studies with duration data have follow-up of 12 weeks or less.

Source evidence could not be resolved sufficiently for this field.

Not extracted from the authoritative source.

Control Group

Clinician-reference record is usable with limitations in: design, risk_of_bias.

Participants received a digital educational program delivered over 8 sessions across 4 weeks.

Digital educational program based on Orem's Self-Care Theory

A multi-stage cluster random sampling method was used to allocate patients into two groups: the intervention group (receiving the digital educational program) and the control group, with 48 participants in each.

Participants received standard care without the digital educational program.

Authoritative quality diagnostic: source evidence unresolved.

Digital education improves self-care and reduces HbA1c in type 2 diabetes

Available source content was suppressed because validation identified a conflict.

Standard care

Core clinician-reference fields are available or not applicable.

Participants received five consecutive daily sessions of structured therapeutic education in addition to standard diabetes care.

Diabself-care program

The Diabself-care program consisted of five consecutive daily sessions of structured therapeutic education, each lasting 90 min, delivered to the intervention group in addition to standard diabetes care.

Participants received standard diabetes care without the structured education program.

The control group received standard diabetes care.

Authoritative quality diagnostic: invalid or missing unit.

Authoritative quality diagnostic: invalid or missing value.

Nurse-led program improves diabetes management and mental health

Standard routine care

Children receiving four structured, two-hour supportive-educative sessions based on Orem's Self-Care Model.

Orem's Self-Care Model-based program

Participants were allocated into intervention ( n = 24) and control ( n = 24) groups based on clinic grouping. The intervention comprised four structured, two-hour supportive–educative sessions grounded in Orem’s model.

Children receiving standard routine care without the intervention.

Standard routine care was provided to the control group.

Orem’s Self-Care Model improves diabetes outcomes in children

Antenatal usual care

Received 8 virtual counseling sessions based on stress management.

Stress management-based self-care counseling

The intervention group received 8 virtual counseling sessions once a week for 45–50 min continuously based on stress management.

The control group only received antenatal usual care (AUC).

Stress management counseling improves blood sugar control in gestational diabetes

Structured population data were available for 3 of 3 supporting studies. 1 study described participants with type 2 diabetes. 2 studies described adult participants.

1 supporting study does not have a displayable topic-matched quantitative effect.

Evidence uses heterogeneous comparison contexts: other, usual_care.

1 supporting study has high, serious, critical, unclear, or unavailable risk-of-bias information.

Structured population data were available for 4 of 4 supporting studies. 1 study described participants with type 2 diabetes. 3 studies described adult participants.

1 relevant study has unresolved authoritative design evidence and does not contribute to design-specific or RoB-specific claims.

Evidence uses heterogeneous comparison contexts: baseline_within_group, usual_care.

Instructional WhatsApp group for diabetes self-care × Diabetes self-management behaviors

Available supporting studies

Digital education improves self-care and reduces HbA1c in type 2 diabetes

Nurse-led program improves diabetes management and mental health

Orem’s Self-Care Model improves diabetes outcomes in children

Stress management counseling improves blood sugar control in gestational diabetes