Structured population data were available for 8 of 8 supporting studies. Diabetes type was heterogeneous: 4 studies with type 2 diabetes, 1 studies with type 1 diabetes. Age groups were heterogeneous: 4 studies with adult participants, 1 studies with youth participants.

2 supporting studies do not have a displayable topic-matched quantitative effect.

Evidence uses heterogeneous comparison contexts: active_comparator, placebo, usual_care.

1 supporting study has high, serious, critical, unclear, or unavailable risk-of-bias information.

5 of 8 studies with duration data have follow-up of 12 weeks or less.

1 study contains conflicting p-value and significance fields; those significance claims are suppressed.

Routine lifestyle education

Core clinician-reference fields are available or not applicable.

Participants received a 5:2 diet with energy restriction on 2 days per week.

Diet Intervention

Participants were randomized to one of three arms: diet intervention (2 days per week energy-restricted diet)

Participants completed supervised exercise sessions at health care centers.

Exercise Intervention

Participants were randomized to one of three arms: exercise intervention (2 days per week low-volume HIIT combined with RT)

Participants received routine lifestyle education as a control.

Participants were randomized to one of three arms: control (routine lifestyle education)

5:2 Diet Improves Glycemic Control in Type 2 Diabetes

Placebo Control

Participants received a placebo capsule daily.

A total of 67 individuals were assessed for eligibility, of whom 48 met the inclusion criteria and were randomized into four groups: (i) placebo control (PLA; n = 12);

Participants engaged in supervised concurrent training three times per week.

Concurrent Training

Participants were randomized into four groups: (ii) concurrent training (CBT; n = 12);

Participants received a daily capsule of microencapsulated polyphenols.

Microencapsulated Polyphenol Supplementation

Participants were randomized into four groups: (iii) microencapsulated polyphenol supplementation (EATME; n = 12);

Participants engaged in concurrent training and received polyphenol supplementation.

Combined Concurrent Training with Supplementation

Participants were randomized into four groups: (iv) combined concurrent training with supplementation (CBT + EATME; n = 12).

Authoritative quality diagnostic: p value significance conflict.

Authoritative quality diagnostic: sample size arm total mismatch.

Combining Exercise and Polyphenols Improves Glycemic Control in Prediabetes

Clinic-Based Exercise Program (CBE)

Participants received a structured 12-week exercise intervention facilitated by a smartphone application, integrating aerobic and resistance training.

Digital Outdoor Exercise Program (DOE)

Participants assigned to this arm received a structured 12-week exercise intervention facilitated by a smartphone application. The exercise program integrated aerobic and resistance training aligned with established diabetes exercise guidelines.

Participants attended on-site supervised exercise sessions of similar frequency and intensity.

The clinic group attended on-site supervised exercise sessions of similar frequency and intensity.

Digital Exercise Program is Non-inferior to Clinic-Based Exercise for T2 Diabetes

Available source content was suppressed because validation identified a conflict.

Leisure-time physical activity (LTPA)

Participants performed resistance exercises three times a week as home-based exercises using their body weight.

Home-based resistance training (HBRT)

Home-based resistance training (HBRT): Participants performed resistance exercises three times a week and planned as home-based exercises (the individual’s body weight was used as the resistance).

Participants engaged in leisure activities such as football, cycling, and volleyball, without controlled intensity or type of exercises.

Leisure-time physical activity (LTPA): Participants were required to participate in their leisure activities, such as football, cycling, volleyball, and other physical activities.

Authoritative quality diagnostic: invalid or missing unit.

Exercise Improves Health in Children with Type 1 Diabetes

Usual care

Participants received a 12-week program including 24 supervised exercise sessions and 24 self-management sessions.

Exercise therapy and self-management support

The intervention included 24 supervised 60-minute group-based exercise sessions and 24 self-management sessions over 12 weeks.

Participants received usual care without the additional intervention.

Participants were allocated to either the exercise therapy and self-management support intervention group (n = 115) or the usual care group (n = 113).

Authoritative quality diagnostic: invalid or missing value.

Exercise therapy reduces blood pressure in multimorbidity.

General health education

Participants received a structured, progressive, and individualised physical activity intervention.

Progressive physical activity regimen monitored by smartphone sensors and mobile apps

The intervention group receiving a progressive physical activity regimen monitored by smartphone sensors and mobile apps.

Participants received health education materials focusing on the general importance of regular physical activity.

The control group received general health education.

Physical activity intervention improves glycaemic control in individuals with abnormal glucose tolerance

Control group

Participants received post-exercise ultrasound treatment on the quadriceps femoris muscle.

TUS group

Thirty sedentary women with T2D (aged 41–49 years, glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c) 6.5%–9.0%) were randomized to a TUS group ( n = 15) or control ( n = 15). The TUS group received post-exercise ultrasound (3 MHz, 1 W/cm2, 7 min/leg) using the Intellect Mobile 2 device.

Participants in the control group completed the same aerobic cycling program without ultrasound treatment.

Thirty sedentary women with T2D (aged 41–49 years, glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c) 6.5%–9.0%) were randomized to a TUS group ( n = 15) or control ( n = 15). Both groups completed an 8-week aerobic cycling program.

Ultrasound therapy reduces muscle soreness and fatigue in women with T2D

IG wore a wrist-worn device and received monthly physiotherapist-led guidance; 80% maintained a physiotherapist-guided exercise routine at least three times per week.

Intervention group: wrist-worn wearable device plus monthly physiotherapist-led exercise guidance

Non-intervention group: standard care

Wearable-supported exercise guidance may improve walking capacity in type 2 diabetes

Structured population data were available for 3 of 3 supporting studies. 1 study described participants with type 2 diabetes. 3 studies described adult participants.

Structured population data were available for 3 of 3 supporting studies. 2 studies described participants with type 2 diabetes. 3 studies described adult participants.

1 supporting study does not have a displayable topic-matched quantitative effect.

Structured population data were available for 4 of 4 supporting studies. 3 studies described participants with type 2 diabetes. 4 studies described adult participants.

Upstream consistency scoring indicates mixed findings across the evidence.

Evidence uses heterogeneous comparison contexts: active_comparator, usual_care.

Structured population data were available for 8 of 8 supporting studies. 4 studies described participants with type 2 diabetes. 8 studies described adult participants.

1 relevant study has unresolved authoritative design evidence and does not contribute to design-specific or RoB-specific claims.

Evidence uses heterogeneous comparison contexts: baseline_within_group, unknown_unresolved, usual_care.

2 supporting studies have high, serious, critical, unclear, or unavailable risk-of-bias information.

Evidence uses heterogeneous comparison contexts: baseline_within_group, usual_care.

Evidence uses heterogeneous comparison contexts: active_comparator, unknown_unresolved.

3 supporting studies have high, serious, critical, unclear, or unavailable risk-of-bias information.

Structured population data were available for 4 of 4 supporting studies. 4 studies described participants with type 2 diabetes. 4 studies described adult participants.

Structured population data were available for 5 of 5 supporting studies. Diabetes type was heterogeneous: 2 studies with type 1 diabetes, 1 studies with type 2 diabetes. Age groups were heterogeneous: 2 studies with adult participants, 1 studies with youth participants.

2 relevant studies have unresolved authoritative design evidence and do not contribute to design-specific or RoB-specific claims.

Evidence uses heterogeneous comparison contexts: baseline_within_group, other, usual_care.

4 of 5 studies with duration data have follow-up of 12 weeks or less.

Structured population data were available for 10 of 11 supporting studies. Diabetes type was heterogeneous: 5 studies with type 2 diabetes, 2 studies with type 1 diabetes. 8 studies described adult participants.

3 relevant studies have unresolved authoritative design evidence and do not contribute to design-specific or RoB-specific claims.

3 supporting studies do not have a displayable topic-matched quantitative effect.

Evidence uses heterogeneous comparison contexts: active_comparator, baseline_within_group, placebo, unknown_unresolved, usual_care.

1 supporting study lacks usable structured population information.

4 supporting studies have high, serious, critical, unclear, or unavailable risk-of-bias information.

Structured population data were available for 8 of 8 supporting studies. 7 studies described participants with type 2 diabetes. 7 studies described adult participants.

Evidence uses heterogeneous comparison contexts: active_comparator, baseline_within_group, placebo.

Structured population data were available for 4 of 4 supporting studies. 4 studies described participants with type 1 diabetes. 2 studies described adult participants.

Structured population data were available for 8 of 8 supporting studies. 6 studies described participants with type 2 diabetes. 7 studies described adult participants.

Evidence uses heterogeneous comparison contexts: active_comparator, unknown_unresolved, usual_care.

Structured population data were available for 3 of 3 supporting studies. 3 studies described participants with type 2 diabetes. 3 studies described adult participants.

3 of 3 studies with duration data have follow-up of 12 weeks or less.

Evidence uses heterogeneous comparison contexts: active_comparator, placebo.

Evidence uses heterogeneous comparison contexts: active_comparator, baseline_within_group.

Structured population data were available for 3 of 3 supporting studies. Diabetes type was heterogeneous: 1 studies with type 1 diabetes, 1 studies with type 2 diabetes. 2 studies described adult participants.

Structured population data were available for 13 of 13 supporting studies. 11 studies described participants with type 2 diabetes. 12 studies described adult participants.

4 relevant studies have unresolved authoritative design evidence and do not contribute to design-specific or RoB-specific claims.

Evidence uses heterogeneous comparison contexts: active_comparator, baseline_within_group, usual_care.

Evidence uses heterogeneous comparison contexts: unknown_unresolved, usual_care.

Structured population data were available for 3 of 3 supporting studies. Diabetes type was heterogeneous: 2 studies with type 2 diabetes, 1 studies with type 1 diabetes. Age groups were heterogeneous: 2 studies with adult participants, 1 studies with youth participants.

Structured population data were available for 12 of 12 supporting studies. Diabetes type was heterogeneous: 9 studies with type 2 diabetes, 1 studies with type 1 diabetes. 12 studies described adult participants.

9 supporting studies have high, serious, critical, unclear, or unavailable risk-of-bias information.

Structured population data were available for 5 of 5 supporting studies. 5 studies described participants with type 2 diabetes. 4 studies described adult participants.

Structured population data were available for 3 of 3 supporting studies. 2 studies described participants with type 2 diabetes. 2 studies described adult participants.

Structured population data were available for 2 of 3 supporting studies. 2 studies described participants with type 2 diabetes. 2 studies described adult participants.

Evidence uses heterogeneous comparison contexts: active_comparator, placebo, unknown_unresolved.

Structured population data were available for 10 of 10 supporting studies. Diabetes type was heterogeneous: 8 studies with type 2 diabetes, 2 studies with type 1 diabetes. Age groups were heterogeneous: 8 studies with adult participants, 1 studies with youth participants.

Evidence uses heterogeneous comparison contexts: active_comparator, other, usual_care.

3 studies contain conflicting p-value and significance fields; those significance claims are suppressed.

Structured population data were available for 4 of 4 supporting studies. 2 studies described participants with type 2 diabetes. 4 studies described adult participants.

Evidence uses heterogeneous comparison contexts: other, usual_care.

2 of 4 studies with duration data have follow-up of 12 weeks or less.

Structured population data were available for 4 of 4 supporting studies. Diabetes type was heterogeneous: 2 studies with type 2 diabetes, 1 studies with type 1 diabetes. 4 studies described adult participants.

Structured population data were available for 5 of 5 supporting studies. 5 studies described participants with type 2 diabetes. 5 studies described adult participants.

Structured population data were available for 11 of 11 supporting studies. 10 studies described participants with type 2 diabetes. 11 studies described adult participants.

Structured population data were available for 6 of 6 supporting studies. 6 studies described participants with type 2 diabetes. 6 studies described adult participants.

Evidence uses heterogeneous comparison contexts: active_comparator, baseline_within_group, unknown_unresolved, usual_care.

Structured population data were available for 7 of 7 supporting studies. Diabetes type was heterogeneous: 2 studies with type 2 diabetes, 1 studies with type 1 diabetes. 5 studies described adult participants.

Structured population data were available for 5 of 5 supporting studies. 3 studies described participants with type 2 diabetes. 4 studies described adult participants.

Structured population data were available for 5 of 5 supporting studies. Diabetes type was heterogeneous: 4 studies with type 2 diabetes, 1 studies with type 1 diabetes. 3 studies described adult participants.

Evidence uses heterogeneous comparison contexts: baseline_within_group, placebo, usual_care.

Exercise therapy × HbA1c

Available supporting studies