Structured population data were available for 4 of 4 supporting studies. 3 studies described participants with type 2 diabetes. 4 studies described adult participants.

2 of 4 studies with duration data have follow-up of 12 weeks or less.

1 study contains conflicting p-value and significance fields; those significance claims are suppressed.

Healthy Diet with Standard Macronutrient Ratio

Core clinician-reference fields are available or not applicable.

Participants followed a diet where they consumed normal calories for 5 days and restricted to 500-600 kcal for 2 non-consecutive days.

Intermittent Fasting 5:2

Intermittent Fasting 5:2 Diet: In this diet, the participants were required to continue their normal calorie intake for 5 days a week, while for 2 non-consecutive days per week, they consumed only 25% of their daily caloric needs in a typical day (500–600 kcal per day).

A plant-based diet with a macronutrient distribution of 40% carbohydrates, 20% protein, and 40% fat.

Portfolio Moderate-Carbohydrate

Portfolio-moderate-carbohydrate diet: This is a plant-based diet with a macronutrient distribution of 40% carbohydrates, 20% protein, and 40% fat based on each individual's total caloric requirement.

Daily calorie intake restricted to 75% of total calorie intake with anti-inflammatory recommendations.

Anti-Inflammatory

Anti-inflammatory diet: In this diet, daily calorie intake was restricted to 75% of the total calorie intake per day with selecting the nutrients according to the anti-inflammatory recommendations.

Participants followed a healthy diet with a daily calorie restriction of 75% of daily energy requirements.

Control group: Due to ethical considerations, non-intervention in the control group may lead pre-diabetic participants to progress to diabetes. Therefore, a healthy diet with a daily calorie restriction (75% of daily energy requirements) with the standard macronutrient ratio of 50% carbohydrates, 20% protein, and 30% fat was considered as the control group.

Authoritative quality diagnostic: invalid or missing unit.

Authoritative quality diagnostic: invalid or missing value.

Dietary interventions improve glycemic control in pre-diabetic patients

No dietary restrictions

Participants followed a 3-day per week intermittent fasting regimen with calorie intake restricted to a maximum of 500 kcal prior to noon.

Intermittent Fasting Group

The participants were randomly assigned to either 12 weeks of IF group ( n = 22) or a control group ( n = 24). The IF group followed a 3-day per week IF regimen, during which calorie intake was restricted to a maximum of 500 kcal prior to noon.

Participants in the control group had no dietary restrictions.

However, participants in the control group had no dietary restrictions.

Authoritative quality diagnostic: p value significance conflict.

Intermittent fasting aids weight loss in type 2 diabetes

Non-dietary advice

Participants followed a time-restricted feeding schedule, eating within an 8-hour window from 12 to 8 p.m.

One hundred adults with T2D were randomly assigned to an IF group (50 following an 8-h eating window) or a control group, non-dietary advice.

Participants continued to eat as normal without dietary restrictions.

Intermittent fasting improves glycemic control.

Standard lifestyle education

Participants followed a 5:2 intermittent energy-restricted diet.

Diet Intervention Group

Participants were randomly assigned to one of three groups: a diet intervention group following a 5:2 intermittent energy-restricted diet.

Participants performed twice-weekly supervised low-volume high-intensity interval training combined with resistance exercise.

Exercise Intervention Group

Participants were randomly assigned to one of three groups: an exercise intervention group performing twice-weekly supervised low-volume high-intensity interval training combined with resistance exercise.

Control group receiving standard lifestyle education.

Participants were randomly assigned to one of three groups: a control group receiving standard lifestyle education.

Metabolomics score improves metabolic profiling in diabetes

Structured population data were available for 3 of 3 supporting studies. 1 study described participants with type 2 diabetes. 3 studies described adult participants.

Structured population data were available for 3 of 3 supporting studies. 2 studies described participants with type 2 diabetes. 3 studies described adult participants.

1 supporting study does not have a displayable topic-matched quantitative effect.

Upstream consistency scoring indicates mixed findings across the evidence.

Evidence uses heterogeneous comparison contexts: active_comparator, usual_care.

Structured population data were available for 8 of 8 supporting studies. 4 studies described participants with type 2 diabetes. 8 studies described adult participants.

1 relevant study has unresolved authoritative design evidence and does not contribute to design-specific or RoB-specific claims.

Evidence uses heterogeneous comparison contexts: baseline_within_group, unknown_unresolved, usual_care.

2 supporting studies have high, serious, critical, unclear, or unavailable risk-of-bias information.

Evidence uses heterogeneous comparison contexts: baseline_within_group, usual_care.

2 supporting studies do not have a displayable topic-matched quantitative effect.

Evidence uses heterogeneous comparison contexts: active_comparator, unknown_unresolved.

3 supporting studies have high, serious, critical, unclear, or unavailable risk-of-bias information.

Structured population data were available for 4 of 4 supporting studies. 4 studies described participants with type 2 diabetes. 4 studies described adult participants.

Structured population data were available for 5 of 5 supporting studies. Diabetes type was heterogeneous: 2 studies with type 1 diabetes, 1 studies with type 2 diabetes. Age groups were heterogeneous: 2 studies with adult participants, 1 studies with youth participants.

2 relevant studies have unresolved authoritative design evidence and do not contribute to design-specific or RoB-specific claims.

Evidence uses heterogeneous comparison contexts: baseline_within_group, other, usual_care.

4 of 5 studies with duration data have follow-up of 12 weeks or less.

Structured population data were available for 10 of 11 supporting studies. Diabetes type was heterogeneous: 5 studies with type 2 diabetes, 2 studies with type 1 diabetes. 8 studies described adult participants.

3 relevant studies have unresolved authoritative design evidence and do not contribute to design-specific or RoB-specific claims.

3 supporting studies do not have a displayable topic-matched quantitative effect.

Evidence uses heterogeneous comparison contexts: active_comparator, baseline_within_group, placebo, unknown_unresolved, usual_care.

1 supporting study lacks usable structured population information.

4 supporting studies have high, serious, critical, unclear, or unavailable risk-of-bias information.

Structured population data were available for 8 of 8 supporting studies. 7 studies described participants with type 2 diabetes. 7 studies described adult participants.

Evidence uses heterogeneous comparison contexts: active_comparator, baseline_within_group, placebo.

1 supporting study has high, serious, critical, unclear, or unavailable risk-of-bias information.

Structured population data were available for 4 of 4 supporting studies. 4 studies described participants with type 1 diabetes. 2 studies described adult participants.

Structured population data were available for 8 of 8 supporting studies. 6 studies described participants with type 2 diabetes. 7 studies described adult participants.

Evidence uses heterogeneous comparison contexts: active_comparator, unknown_unresolved, usual_care.

Structured population data were available for 8 of 8 supporting studies. Diabetes type was heterogeneous: 4 studies with type 2 diabetes, 1 studies with type 1 diabetes. Age groups were heterogeneous: 4 studies with adult participants, 1 studies with youth participants.

Evidence uses heterogeneous comparison contexts: active_comparator, placebo, usual_care.

5 of 8 studies with duration data have follow-up of 12 weeks or less.

Structured population data were available for 3 of 3 supporting studies. 3 studies described participants with type 2 diabetes. 3 studies described adult participants.

3 of 3 studies with duration data have follow-up of 12 weeks or less.

Evidence uses heterogeneous comparison contexts: active_comparator, placebo.

Evidence uses heterogeneous comparison contexts: active_comparator, baseline_within_group.

Structured population data were available for 3 of 3 supporting studies. Diabetes type was heterogeneous: 1 studies with type 1 diabetes, 1 studies with type 2 diabetes. 2 studies described adult participants.

Structured population data were available for 13 of 13 supporting studies. 11 studies described participants with type 2 diabetes. 12 studies described adult participants.

4 relevant studies have unresolved authoritative design evidence and do not contribute to design-specific or RoB-specific claims.

Evidence uses heterogeneous comparison contexts: active_comparator, baseline_within_group, usual_care.

Evidence uses heterogeneous comparison contexts: unknown_unresolved, usual_care.

Structured population data were available for 3 of 3 supporting studies. Diabetes type was heterogeneous: 2 studies with type 2 diabetes, 1 studies with type 1 diabetes. Age groups were heterogeneous: 2 studies with adult participants, 1 studies with youth participants.

Structured population data were available for 12 of 12 supporting studies. Diabetes type was heterogeneous: 9 studies with type 2 diabetes, 1 studies with type 1 diabetes. 12 studies described adult participants.

9 supporting studies have high, serious, critical, unclear, or unavailable risk-of-bias information.

Structured population data were available for 5 of 5 supporting studies. 5 studies described participants with type 2 diabetes. 4 studies described adult participants.

Structured population data were available for 3 of 3 supporting studies. 2 studies described participants with type 2 diabetes. 2 studies described adult participants.

Structured population data were available for 2 of 3 supporting studies. 2 studies described participants with type 2 diabetes. 2 studies described adult participants.

Evidence uses heterogeneous comparison contexts: active_comparator, placebo, unknown_unresolved.

Structured population data were available for 10 of 10 supporting studies. Diabetes type was heterogeneous: 8 studies with type 2 diabetes, 2 studies with type 1 diabetes. Age groups were heterogeneous: 8 studies with adult participants, 1 studies with youth participants.

Evidence uses heterogeneous comparison contexts: active_comparator, other, usual_care.

3 studies contain conflicting p-value and significance fields; those significance claims are suppressed.

Structured population data were available for 4 of 4 supporting studies. 2 studies described participants with type 2 diabetes. 4 studies described adult participants.

Evidence uses heterogeneous comparison contexts: other, usual_care.

Structured population data were available for 4 of 4 supporting studies. Diabetes type was heterogeneous: 2 studies with type 2 diabetes, 1 studies with type 1 diabetes. 4 studies described adult participants.

Structured population data were available for 5 of 5 supporting studies. 5 studies described participants with type 2 diabetes. 5 studies described adult participants.

Structured population data were available for 11 of 11 supporting studies. 10 studies described participants with type 2 diabetes. 11 studies described adult participants.

Structured population data were available for 6 of 6 supporting studies. 6 studies described participants with type 2 diabetes. 6 studies described adult participants.

Evidence uses heterogeneous comparison contexts: active_comparator, baseline_within_group, unknown_unresolved, usual_care.

Structured population data were available for 7 of 7 supporting studies. Diabetes type was heterogeneous: 2 studies with type 2 diabetes, 1 studies with type 1 diabetes. 5 studies described adult participants.

Structured population data were available for 5 of 5 supporting studies. 3 studies described participants with type 2 diabetes. 4 studies described adult participants.

Structured population data were available for 5 of 5 supporting studies. Diabetes type was heterogeneous: 4 studies with type 2 diabetes, 1 studies with type 1 diabetes. 3 studies described adult participants.

Evidence uses heterogeneous comparison contexts: baseline_within_group, placebo, usual_care.

Intermittent Fasting (IF) × HbA1c

Available supporting studies

Dietary interventions improve glycemic control in pre-diabetic patients

Intermittent fasting aids weight loss in type 2 diabetes

Intermittent fasting improves glycemic control.

Metabolomics score improves metabolic profiling in diabetes